Issue 35

S. Barter et alii, Frattura ed Integrità Strutturale, 35 (2016) 132-141; DOI: 10.3221/IGF-ESIS.35.16 137 changes is that each CA sub-block appears to have a different preferred growth plane. In trying to achieve this plane, different crack surface textures have formed for different R s, for effectively the same peak K max (the varies only slightly across this field of view shown). The extent of the localised tilts and twists of the crack path appear to be highly dependent upon both the crystal orientation and loading interaction, and therefore can be expected to vary from grain-to-grain. This is demonstrated in Fig. 3B where a grain boundary is crossed and a sudden change in the average preferred growth plane occurs. Therefore, as may be expected, the large facets shown in Fig. 3B and in Fig. 2A and B are generally the result of major grain boundary crossings, while the textured surfaces and local paths on these facets are the result of tilts and rotations caused by changes in the loading. As in Fig. 2B, Fig. 3 also shows that the crack at these low ∆ K s can be considered to be sampling various paths – both the preferred planes of the crystal and the unfavourable planes that enable the crack to stay coherent with the average crack front. These features make the cracks growth from individual CA sub- blocks of loading visible at very small ∆ K s and crack sizes where striations cannot be seen. A possible explanation for the path changes within a grain is the limited number of slip systems available, since the preferred slip planes and directions will affect the plane of crack extension. Aluminium has a face centred cubic (fcc) crystal structure with 12 primary slip systems: four slip planes and three slip directions for each plane. The activity that occurs on each of these slip systems is key to the paths that the fatigue crack creates at these lower ∆ K s where plasticity is limited and slip is localised to these planes. Slip occurs on those planes and in those directions that are the easiest to activate given the limited crack driving force, so it is probable that only those planes nearest the planes of maximum shear are activated to progress the crack tip during any load increase. An example of this effect is illustrated in Fig. 4, where the slip bands on the surface of a specimen were produced by large ∆ K - R cycles in a (mostly + R ) VA spectrum for fatigue cracks grown from laser slots. Although the primary slip planes are likely to be those nearest to the maximum shear planes ahead of the crack tip (as is shown in Fig. 4A), they need not be at the 45°, as shown in Fig. 4B, and so the path taken though any one grain will be different from grain to grain. Further, in AA7050-T7451, the formation of this localised slip is very much influenced by the environment, as it is with most aluminium alloys since the presence of hydrogen from the dissociation 7 of water appears to promote the formation of localised slip bands, restricting the plasticity in addition to the microstructural hardening precipitates. Figure 4 : View of two cracks extending from laser slots on the surface of the same specimen showing the slip bands on the primary slip systems in a single grain in each case. They were formed by the peak load in the complex spectrum shown in the insert. Note their asymmetry. Loading was in the vertical direction. (Optical interference contrast images). Further complicating matters, in 3D an embedded thumbnail shaped fatigue crack will have multiple slip planes each with three slip directions around a curved crack front and the shear plane produced by both the loading and un-loading part of the cycle. These will interact differently with these many active slip planes depending upon the micro and macro crack orientation to these to the growth direction 8 . Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the crack path will also tend to vary about the crack front in a single grain, providing a large number of possible micro and macro growth paths. All of which results in different micro crack paths developing about the crack front and the local front breaking-up and re- forming from location to location about the front. An example of a fatigue crack fracture surface produced by a VA (combat aircraft wing root bending moment) test spectrum with a single 20% overload is shown in Fig. 5. In this figure, the result of the crack front breaking-up due to forced non-ideal growth paths in some regions can be seen though an increase in roughness on the surface due to the crack front parting and re-forming 7 The influence of hydrogen on the fatigue process in aluminium alloys is an area of debate that will not be further discussed here although strain localisation due to the presence of hydrogen has been proposed [22]. 8 Suggesting that the processes for crack extension at this very small scale maybe similar to the process of striation formation [16].